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Comparing NFT Standards - ERC-721 vs ERC-721a vs ERC-1155

Wanna be in the same league as Damien Hirst, DC, and Niftys? Then build your NFT
on the Palm network! 

Infura and Palm NFT Studio [https://twitter.com/PalmNft] are excited to announce
that the Palm network is now available to all users of Infura. Nearly 430,000
developers now have access to create NFTs on the Palm network. 

The Palm NFT Studio

The Palm network is an Ethereum sidechain dedicated to selling, purchasing, and
trading NFTs that are associated with real-world and digital assets. Palm
provides low gas costs and fast transaction finality. The network is over 99%
more energy efficient than Proof of Work-based blockchain networks, providing
artists with a more sustainable solution today, while Ethereum upgrades to Proof
of Stake in the Merge, tentatively scheduled for release in July 2022.

The Palm NFT Studio has collaborated with Damien Hirst
[https://palm.io/studio/damien-hirst-currency-nft-updates/], DC
[https://palm.io/studio/creating-a-sustainable-future-for-digital-fandoms/], 
Niftys and Warner Brothers
[https://palm.io/studio/niftys-launches-the-matrix-resurrections-nft-project-on-the-palm-network/] 
and other artists in minting NFTs on the Palm network. 

How to mint an NFT on Palm

For users looking to mint NFT projects, the Palm network provides an effective
solution to create NFTs that are able to be bridged back to Ethereum.

To access the Palm mainnet or testnet endpoints, here’s how to get started:

1. Login [http://infura.io/login] to your Infura account and select an existing
Ethereum project (or create a new Ethereum project
[https://docs.infura.io/infura/create-a-project] if you have not yet). 

2. Click on the settings of the project to view the Palm API endpoints
[https://docs.infura.io/infura/networks/palm/getting-started/accessing-palm-api-endpoints]
.

Using Palm mainet and testnet is free as part of all Infura plans, and requests
sent to the API count as part of your existing plan. No action is required to
activate Palm, and the availability of Palm testnet allows you to have an
environment to begin developing and testing your NFT project before going live. 

See our documentation on Palm [https://docs.infura.io/infura/networks/palm] for
more information, as well as links to helpful tutorials
[https://docs.infura.io/infura/networks/palm].

Get in touch and start building

Interested in creating your own NFTs, but do not know where to start? 

Learn more from Infura’s Director of Engineering, Kris Shinn, on minting NFTs
using Infura and Replit [/minting-nfts-with-infura-and-replit/], based on his 
EthDenver 2022 [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kim7T4GDFOM] presentation. 

Let us know how you are using NFTs in our Discord and feel free to ask questions
in our community [https://community.infura.io/]. 

Just getting started with Infura? Our docs will get you building
[https://docs.infura.io/infura/].

Ethereum Network Updates, Upgrades, Hard Forks

Infura - Ethereum Network Updates

Network

The Palm network is now available for all NFT creators on Infura

Last July, we published Ethereum JavaScript Libraries: web3.js vs. ethers.js
(Part I) [/ethereum-javascript-libraries-web3-js-vs-ethers-js-part-i/] to
provide “a comparison of web3.js and ethers.js, focusing on their similarities
and differences, so that you can better understand the nuances of the
libraries.”

To recap, we dove into the documentation of both libraries. We then used a
modified version of a software evaluation framework Andres Canal established in
his article “Using Quill,js to Build a WYSIWYG Editor for your Website
[https://www.scalablepath.com/blog/using-quill-js-build-wysiwyg-editor-website/]
” to guide the reader toward making the best decision in choosing which library
to use.

The article was “written with the intent of educating developers to understand
the tradeoffs between the two libraries to be able to make a decision of which
library to use for their particular use case.”

How have the conclusions from that article changed over the course of the past
year?

Table 1: Comparison of Conclusions about Web3.js and Ethers.js

July 2020October 2021Web3.js has a community of users and maintainers associated
with the Ethereum Foundation. Web3.js has a good API reference and has been
around since 2015. Many projects are using it and the library has been the go-to
in many "Build Your First dApp" tutorials.Web3.js is best for those who prefer
the most-used Ethereum javascript library that is also maintained by a
blockchain-focused firm. Web3.js's strengths are its tests and community.
Documentation is currently modest in design and scope and can definitely be
improved.Ethers.js is excellent because it is a small, compact library with a
large number of test cases. It has good “Getting Started” documentation, making
it accessible to new users. Developers find ethers.js simple and intuitive and
the library has gained in popularity over the past two years, seeing increased
downloads and usage by projects.Ethers.js is best for those who prefer
lightweight, user-friendly libraries with robust testing and documentation.
Ethers.js’s strengths are its documentation, tests and community. It could have
more maintainers in order to create some redundancy in the development team -
currently a single individual.

Let’s dive into the updated data and explain why these conclusions have changed.

1) How important is the popularity of the library?
To use Andres Canal’s definition,

“A popular project on Github means exactly what you expect it to. Namely, that
there are lots of people questioning, contributing, and supporting it. This
activity tends to result in more reliable software. You can check the popularity
of any project by looking at how many stars it has, how many issues are opened,
how many pull requests are pending, and how many contributors worked on the
project.”

Web3.js has about 11,600 stars
[https://github.com/ChainSafe/web3.js/pulse/monthly] and ethers.js 3,100
[https://github.com/ethers-io/ethers.js/pulse/monthly] as of Oct. 14, 2021. 
Web3.js is used by 112,849 repositories
[https://github.com/ChainSafe/web3.js/network/dependents?package_id=UGFja2FnZS0xNTA1NzY4MA%3D%3D]
, compared with 65,519 for ethers.js
[https://github.com/ethers-io/ethers.js/network/dependents?package_id=UGFja2FnZS0xNjEzMjI4Ng%3D%3D]
.

Looking back to July 2020, Web3.js had nearly 8,800 stars while ethers.js had
nearly 1,500. Web3.js was used by 51,300 repositories on GitHub, compared with
18,500 for ethers.js. 

Web3.js remains the more popular library, but impressively for both libraries,
their dependencies have at least doubled over this time period. Web3.js remains
more popular, but the overall pie of dependent projects has grown from about
69,800 to 178,368. We will dive more into the dependencies in question 3.

2) How important is the maintenance of the library?
To quote ourselves from the last article,

“We want to use libraries that are updated frequently, so that bugs are squashed
and new features are added. Though it is not perfect, looking at a month (or
two) of commits, closed issues, active issues, and the number of maintainers
over that time period can give a sense of the strengths and weaknesses of an
open source project. This also reveals patterns of maintenance, giving some
insight to the user of a library when updates and bug fixes are generally
addressed, which can be used as a proxy metric for maintenance of the library.”

Using the same metrics from our last article, we see the following for both
libraries.

Table 2: GitHub Monthly Pulse for Sept. 14, 2021 to Oct. 14, 2021

LibraryCommits to Main BranchClosed IssuesActive IssuesMaintainersweb3.js2060107
10ethers.js217391
GitHub Pulse now reveals some additional useful information about the libraries,
which gives us even more context of why we are seeing what we are seeing.

For web3.js, we can see that a single individual is responsible for the majority
of the commits, though there are three individuals that have 10 or more commits.
This is something I see as a plus. This means there is redundancy built into the
development team, in case someone were to stop contributing to the project.
Web3.js has 121 commits to branches other than the main branch, as web3.js is
transitioning off of the 1.x version as outlined in this blogpost the roadmap
for web3.js
[https://medium.com/chainsafe-systems/the-future-of-web3-js-v3-0-0-release-ecc9feecb2de] 
(which we will reference again in the next section). This indicates a lot of
work is going into the future releases.

For ethers.js, Richard Moore continues to be the sole maintainer of the library,
but there are many more people contributing to the project by opening and
closing issues on the GitHub repository, indicating that there is a community of
individuals committed to the health of the library. By virtue of a single
maintainer, it is not surprising to see fewer overall commits.

3) Who is responsible for the development of the library and how many projects
use it?
ChainSafe [https://chainsafe.io/] is the lead maintainer of the web3.js library, 
having received a grant from the Ethereum Foundation to “continue the
maintenance and further development”
[https://medium.com/chainsafe-systems/chainsafe-receives-grant-from-ef-for-web3js-9e4376f5f36a] 
of web3.js in September 2020. ChainSafe’s outline of the future plans for
web3.js
[https://medium.com/chainsafe-systems/the-future-of-web3-js-v3-0-0-release-ecc9feecb2de]
reveals major changes coming, such as the deprecation of web3-bzz and web3-shh
packages in version 3.x and an eventual move to Typescript in version 4.x. These
are exciting additions, but the tradeoff is that ChainSafe will need time to
realize these while maintaining the existing library.

Ethers [https://ethers.org/] is the lead maintainer of the ethers.js library,
which is Richard Moore’s project, so we can think of Richard Moore = Ethers.
Ethers has been the lead maintainer of the project since the inception of it.
This can be a risk for some projects, but in this case, it has made ethers.js
very quick in adding features and capabilities. For example, ethers.js is fully
TypeScript-ready with “definition files and full TypeScript source” according
to
the documentation [https://docs.ethers.io/v5/#features]. 


Table 3: Dependent Repository and Package Counts, October 15, 2021

LibraryDependent RepositoriesDependent Packagesweb3.js113,0184,685ethers.js
66,9503,505

Web3.js, likely due to the longer existence of the project, has more
repositories and packages that are dependent upon it. When compared with metrics
from our last article, ethers.js is closing the gap with web3.js when it comes
to dependent packages.

4) How important is it that the library has tests?
Answer: Very important to any dApp developer worth their salt. Luckily for us,
both libraries have gotten even better since our last article.

Ethers.js has a test suite API documented for the current v5 release on their
GitHub repository [https://docs.ethers.io/v5/testing/]. The documentation of
the
testing is very impressive [https://docs.ethers.io/v5/testing/]. Check it out.

Web3.js has added test documentation
[https://github.com/ChainSafe/web3.js/blob/1.x/TESTING.md] since our last
article. This documentation, based on my personal inspection, appears robust and
clearly written.

I believe ethers.js has the lead, but web3.js has done a great job catching up
in terms of its tests and their documentation, and I feel both have great
coverage when it comes to tests. Tests are a strength for both libraries now.

5) How important is the number of downloads of the library?
As of Oct. 15, 2021, web3.js has 30,767,910 downloads
[https://npm-stat.com/charts.html?package=web3&from=2015-01-01&to=2021-10-15] 
and ethers.js has 24,284,490 downloads
[https://npm-stat.com/charts.html?package=ethers&from=2015-01-01&to=2021-10-15].
Compare that with May 20, 2020, when we first looked at this statistic, when
web3.js had 14,703,432
[https://npm-stat.com/charts.html?package=web3&from=2015-01-01&to=2020-05-20] 
downloads and ethers.js had 8,500,336
[https://npm-stat.com/charts.html?package=ethers&from=2015-01-01&to=2020-05-20]
downloads. The overall pie has grown, but the difference in downloads is
surprisingly close: a difference in total downloads of 6,484,420 on Oct. 15,
2021 compared with a difference of 6,203,096 in late May of 2020. 

When we look at weekly downloads, the two libraries are practically even: 
web3.js at 330,102 [https://www.npmjs.com/package/web3] and ethers.js at 339,318
[https://www.npmjs.com/package/ethers]. Weekly downloads of both libraries have
nearly doubled since we last checked this statistic (May 20, 2020, for those
following along): web3.js at 175,661 [https://www.npmjs.com/package/web3] and
ethers.js at 184,798 [https://www.npmjs.com/package/ethers].

6) How important is web performance?
Web performance is indirectly measured by comparing the size of the libraries,
as we are assuming smaller libraries take less time to load in the browser. 

Both libraries are small. Web3.js has decreased the size of the library to 7.28
MB [https://www.npmjs.com/package/web3] unpacked (unpacked refers to the size of
the library when published) from 10.6 MB when we last checked. Ethers.js touts
its very small size, which has increased to 322 kb uncompressed
[https://www.npmjs.com/package/ethers] from 284 kb uncompressed over the same
time period. It’s unclear what occupies 322 kb within ethers.js. NPM shows
ethers.js 10.2 MB unpacked, and I confirmed this when I downloaded to my
personal machine and calculated the size of the ethers.js package using the
Finder application on Macs. So we have to take ethers.js's word that it is small
in size, which is a big plus, though I do need to do further research to confirm
this claim is valid.

7) How important is the quality of the documentation?
Ethers.js is the clear winner when it comes to the quality of the documentation
of the library and it stands out for three key reasons.

 1. Ethers.js has an extensive “Getting Started Guide,” which helps a user
    orient themselves to both the library and the vocabulary of Ethereum.
 2. Ethers.js has useful call outs and additional information provided as part
    of the documentation, giving the end user visual cues, convenient links, and
    other helpful user experience features that make reading and using the
    documentation an enjoyable experience.
 3. Ethers.js documentation has an extremely useful feature - a toggle to single
    page view, in which all documentation is provided on a single page. This
    makes using “Ctrl + f” in the documentation a breeze, and helps with finding
    the method you are looking for quickly.

Web3.js has not had many visible changes to the documentation since our last
article and could use an update to make the user experience more pleasant.

An indirect additional comment on the documentation - ethers.org provides a very
helpful “playground,” where you can try out the library in browser: 
https://playground.ethers.org/. This useful feature lets a user get started
playing around with the library quickly and easily. While it could be argued
that remix.ethereum.org provides a similar playground experience for web3.js,
this is not the goal of remix, and remix support ethers.js as well.

8) How important is the overall usage of the library?
The last time we looked at the numbers, web3.js was the clear winner in overall
usage, with ethers.js gaining users at a rate that appeared that it would only
be time before ethers.js caught up to web3.js. The results today show that both
have healthy ecosystems and a large number of users. My personal belief is that
the overall growth of the ecosystem shows that both libraries have been adopted
by a significant number of projects and users. So, while web3.js has more
downloads, stars, and overall metrics, ethers.js is competitive to web3.js in
its usage. It’s fair to say both have been widely adopted.

9) How important is the license?
This is one area that has not changed since we last reported. Web3.js still has
the LGPLv3 license and ethers.js the MIT license. I am not a lawyer, and so this
is the hardest area for me to pick a winner. It is worth reviewing Slava
Todavchich’s article “Understanding open-source and free software licensing
[https://medium.com/@moqod_development/understanding-open-source-and-free-software-licensing-c0fa600106c9]
,” which we suggested in our July 2020 blogpost.

But wait... there is a new category!

10) How important is the community and community experience?
Yes, I am adding a new way to evaluate the two libraries, based on my experience
in Developer Relations and Software Community. I am personally looking for
robust channels where developers using the software can interact with one
another, find information about updates and hotfixes, share their use cases and
help each other debug their code. The best software projects provide this for
their users and it is a differentiating factor.

Web3.js and ethers.js have both embraced Discord as a means to communicate
directly with their community of developers. Web3.js lives within the ChainSafe
Discord Server, in the channel #web3js-general. Web3.js has used this channel
not just to interact with developers, but  as of September 2021, to promote a
web3.js developer survey to help drive the direction of changes for version 4.x
of web3.js. Ethers.js utilizes the EF JavaScript Team Discord Server, in the
#ethers channel. Both are active channels with communication on a daily basis.

Both also use Twitter to communicate changes to their audiences, though both
have relatively light follower counts. @web3_js [https://twitter.com/web3_js] 
(1,250 followers) and @ethersproject [https://twitter.com/ethersproject] (1,279
followers) only tweet to announce updates and changes to the libraries, serving
as another way for notifications about updates to get through to developers.

ChainSafe also uses their Medium account to post some updates
[https://medium.com/chainsafe-systems] about web3.js, though not a regular
cadence.

GitHub continues to be a source of discussion for communities of both libraries,
though the shift to Discord by both reflects a growing trend in the Ethereum
community, as well as in software communities in general, to commit to this tool
for a mix of synchronous and asynchronous communication.

The verdict is that both take development and interaction with their communities
seriously.

What’s the next step? 

You should go ahead and test out the libraries themselves with Infura, and we
created a tutorial for just this purpose: Ethereum JavaScript Libraries:
web3.js
vs ethers.js (Part II)
[/ethereum-javascript-libraries-web3-js-vs-ethers-js-part-ii/]. The best way to
see if my evaluation is valid is to kick the tires on both libraries.

In conclusion, instead of declaring a winner, it seems that Ethereum itself is
benefitting from having two leading JavaScript front-end libraries. More
libraries being built that can utilize the features of web3.js and ethers.js
will push them to be even better (like web3-react
[https://github.com/NoahZinsmeister/web3-react], for example). In updating this
article, I have been struck by the growth of downloads and dependencies of both
libraries, making me of the opinion that you can choose either and feel
comfortable with the decision. I hope this illuminated some ways you can
evaluate both to choose what works best for you.

Get started [https://infura.io/register] building on Infura for free today.

Ethereum JavaScript Libraries: Web3.js vs Ethers.js: An Update

As the clock ticks down to the Merge, the Teku and Infura teams have continued
refining their collaboration. In case you missed it, these two teams have
created an eye-poppingly fast Ethereum 2.0 client sync experience
[https://consensys.net/blog/teku/teku-and-infura-team-up-to-make-the-fastest-ethereum-2-0-client-sync/]
. Since then, they have continued refining their integration and made some
important discoveries and improvements.

Attestations with Teku
One of those discoveries was that validators linked to a remote beacon node
could have significant performance issues: specifically, a lot of missed
attestations. Obviously, this is a pretty crucial issue. It turned out to be not
just a problem with a remote beacon node, but specifically a remote beacon node
behind load balancers, including Infura’s load balancers. 

If you’re interested in the blow-by-blow, check out the Github issue here
[https://github.com/ConsenSys/teku/issues/4090].

The solution the team came to was to implement an option to disable early
attestation publishing when the block is received: 

--validators-early-attestations-enabled[=<FALSE>]

Find the full Teku documentation on this issue here
[https://docs.teku.consensys.net/en/latest/Reference/CLI/CLI-Syntax/#validators-early-attestations-enabled]
.

This option allowed validators connecting to Infura beacon nodes to have
performance equivalent to validators connected to a local beacon node, which in
and of itself is impressive. It would appear that this is a fix not just for
nodes connecting through Infura, but for any context where Teku validators are
using load-balanced beacon nodes.

The second innovation the team has made surrounding attestations is batch 
attestations. This consists of sending all attestations produced for a given
slot to the beacon node in a single batch. In the context of Infura, this allows
running a lot more validators without hitting rate limits.

The future of history
Another feature that the team has been working on, which isn’t quite ready yet
for a full release, is an innovative way to store historical state without
having a hard drive the size of the Library of Alexandria. 

With increasing adoption of decentralized technology, there is more and more
demand, and even novel use cases, for historical chain data. The most
top-of-mind for many in the space is tax compliance. Institutions and even
individuals are increasingly in need of solutions for being able to query,
quickly and cheaply, historical chain data.

Like most great things in this space, the solution being developed uses Merkle
tries. Without getting too deep into the woods (pun intended), as it’s not
finished yet, the technique essentially takes the difference between slots and
stores the branch updates. The applicability for this is tremendous, so watch
this space for more updates.

Safety through Diversity
As we approach the reality of Ethereum 2.0, more and more voices are calling out
a topic of vital importance: client diversity. The Ethereum Proof of Work
consensus mechanism is, at this point, venerable and battle-tested, at least in
blockchain terms, and is resistant to 51% of attacks. As the network transitions
to Proof of Stake, the threat remains that a single Ethereum client will be
running on a majority of validator nodes. This opens the door not only for a
malicious attack, but also for single points of failure bringing down the entire
network. 

For more explanation, check out this very readable primer
[https://blog.ethereum.org/2020/08/21/validated-why-client-diversity-matters/] 
that should bring a lot of issues into focus. There are so many reasons to make
the move to a Proof-of-Stake consensus model, and the network is on track to do
so. It would be a stunning failure of vision and quite simply, wildly unsafe to
move Ethereum to a PoS network that has a majority of any Ethereum client. 

Even if we were to assume that all clients were going to act in the best
interests of the network as a whole, which in and of itself is a leap most
aren’t willing to take, the Ethereum network is a sprawling global entity with
external dependencies. No client should be able to be a single point of failure
for the entire network. 

As we build the Beacon Chain and validators up and out, client diversity must be
included as an essential consideration.

Learn more about Infura’s Eth2 API here and sign up [https://infura.io/register] 
for a free account.

Teku + Infura to 2.0: How to Handle Attestations

SoK: Validating Bridges as a Scaling Solution for Blockchains

So, why would you need a hybrid infrastructure model alongside Infura? 

Let’s think about how your database is set up. You probably have your own
database, which is great. What happens if that database goes down? Would your
app continue to run seamlessly, delivering the experience you want your
customers to get? Or, would your database shutdown cause outages and crashes in
your app? 

If the dataset you’re hosting is a public dataset, you have a new paradigm for
making your infrastructure much more resilient and reliable by integrating
Infura into your overall strategy. Infura implements a reverse proxy pattern
internally and can be a highly reliable and performant node in your
infrastructure stack, allowing you the ability to have a portion (or all) of
your traffic routed to Infura. 

You can choose to keep your database as your primary database with Infura as a
backup, or vice versa. In this way, Infura will act as an always-on backup for
your database, providing a level of flexibility previously not available with a
single database running. 

You also have the opportunity to use Infura as a stats comparison tool to make
sure your performance is up to par. Alternatively, you may need to handle more
load (request traffic) than your infrastructure can currently handle. You can
route the overflow to an Infura project ID to handle spikes in traffic so your
service stays up and running. 

There are many opportunities for you to use Infura alongside your own in-house
node infrastructure to improve your user experience. Let’s dive a little deeper
on how we accomplish this.

What does it mean when Infura implements a reverse proxy pattern?
Let’s review what a normal proxy is first, and then we’ll flip it and reverse
it, a la Missy Elliott, to talk about the reverse proxy. A proxy server (or web
proxy or forward proxy) is a server located in front of a group of client
machines (computers). When those computers make requests, the proxy server
intercepts those requests and communicates with the target web servers on behalf
of those clients. Basically, a proxy is a fancy word for a request/response
middleman. 

If you’re a visual learner, here’s a diagram from Cloudflare that shows just
where that forward proxy sits:

What is a reverse proxy? 
A reverse proxy is a server that typically sits on the edge of your
infrastructure. It is responsible for receiving requests from web clients and
subsequently routing them to one or more backend web servers. 

Here’s another great diagram from Cloudflare to show how the reverse proxy fits
in to the whole flow:




One of the main reasons to use a reverse proxy server is load balancing,
ensuring the flow of traffic between clients and servers remains smooth. This is
one of the main advantages of using both your own node and Infura. In addition,
it allows you to cache content and provides web acceleration for improved
performance. Lastly, reverse proxies allow for more efficient, secure SSL
encryption and protection from DDoS attacks and related security issues. 

As we previously mentioned, Infura can be used as a reverse proxy to assist with
ensuring the flow of traffic for your clients and servers stays as smooth as
possible, making for a more enjoyable user experience.

Some examples of a reverse proxy in action
Let’s first look at how we can set up a very simple reverse proxy using Caddy. 

We will use our localhost and a backend HTTP service running on 127.0.0.1:9000
to make sure we’re getting our reverse proxy working correctly. 

First, download Caddy [https://caddyserver.com/]. Once that’s downloaded, check
out their Getting Started guide here
[https://caddyserver.com/docs/getting-started]. Or, follow along to learn how to
set up a simple reverse proxy! 


At this point, you may be running your own node, but since it takes too long to
sync one for this article, we can substitute with a simple NodeJS stub to check
that our reverse proxy is working correctly. I simply named mine main.js.


const http = require('http');

const hostname = '127.0.0.1';
const port = 9000;

const server = http.createServer((req, res) => {
   res.statusCode = 200;
   res.setHeader('Content-Type', 'text/plain');
   res.end('Reverse proxy success!\n');
});

server.listen(port, hostname, () => {
   console.log(`Server running at http://${hostname}:${port}/`);
});


This sets up a backend HTTP service running on 127.0.0.1:9000 mentioned earlier
and will display a “Reverse proxy success!” message if our proxy is working
correctly. To start this, run `node main.js` in a different terminal window and
leave that connection open! 

Next, we will want to create a Caddyfile
[https://caddyserver.com/docs/quick-starts/caddyfile] (literally create a new
text file in whatever directory you’re working in and name it Caddyfile). Once
you have that set up, we will set up our simple reverse proxy itself inside the
Caddyfile with just two lines: 

localhost 

reverse_proxy 127.0.0.1:9000


In this instance, reverse_proxy is where we want to get our information from
(the original site), and localhost is where we are redirecting to using our
reverse proxy. 

Now, from the same directory as your Caddyfile in a new terminal window from
your `node main.js`, run:

caddy run


This will start the caddy server and will allow your reverse proxy to work! Now,
you’ll notice when you run this that you don’t see the “Reverse proxy success!”
message popping up. 

That’s because this just started the server. You now need to make a request to “
https://localhost” and you’ll see the message. To do this, open another terminal
window (that makes three now, for those of us keeping track), and simply run:

curl https://localhost


Running this command will give you the “Reverse proxy success!” message we were
looking for, and now you know you’ve successfully set up a simple reverse proxy. 

Enter Infura!
Now that we’ve gotten a basic reverse proxy up and running, let’s try one using
an Infura endpoint. We will keep our overall setup of using a Caddyfile the
same, but we won’t need the backend HTTP service running in the background, as
that will be switched to an Infura endpoint. 

We’re going to change up how our Caddyfile looks:

localhost 

reverse_proxy https://rinkeby.infura.io {
   header_up Host {/v3/<YOUR_PROJECT_ID>}
}


You will notice that we’ve added in a “header_up Host” inside the reverse_proxy 
section. This allows us to include our Project ID to both the Rinkeby endpoint
and the localhost endpoint we are proxying to. 

To test this out, we will need to send a request, so I used web3_clientVersion 
as an example: 

curl https://localhost/v3/<YOUR_PROJECT_ID> \
-X POST \
-H "Content-Type: application/json" \
-d '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"web3_clientVersion","params": [],"id":1}'


When we run this, we get the following output: 

{"jsonrpc":"2.0","id":1,"result":"Geth/v1.10.8-omnibus-aef5bfb3/linux-amd64/go1.16.7"}


Cool! But how do I know my reverse proxy is working? Well, if you switch out
`localhost` in our curl command to `rinkeby.infura.io`, you get the same output,
which shows that our reverse proxy is running properly.

How do you use Infura as a backup for your own node?
We’re going to set things up initially the same as we did in the previous
example but with two upstreams, one to our localhost and the other to the Infura
node. 

Next, we’re going to set up load balancing. Now, what’s load balancing? Load
balancing acts like a traffic cop sitting in front of your application servers,
routing client requests across all the servers that can fulfill those requests
quickly and efficiently. 

So how do we set that up?

Since we’re using Caddy, we can refer to their docs
[https://caddyserver.com/docs/caddyfile/directives/reverse_proxy#load-balancing] 
for the basics of how to use more than one upstream. When we look at lb_policy,
there are many ways to determine which upstream Caddy will use first. Caddy will
default to using the first listed upstream and will move down the list if the
servers stop responding. In our example, we want to have localhost:9000 from our
main.js file be the first upstream, meaning we want our reverse proxy to send
the data through our localhost first, so we will identify that by putting it
first in our list of upstreams (we will leave our Infura Rinkeby endpoint in as
the second upstream): 

localhost

reverse_proxy localhost:9000 https://rinkeby.infura.io {
   header_up Host {/v3/66172ed429624788ac264604755ba42c}
}


Since we are using the localhost:9000 port, we want to get that server back up
and running. In another terminal window, start the Node server with node main.js
.

To make sure everything is set up correctly, let’s run our request through by
running the same request from earlier but with the :9000 port included,
expecting to get the “Reverse proxy success!” message:

curl http://localhost:3000/v3/<YOUR_PROJECT_ID> \
-X POST \
-H "Content-Type: application/json" \
-d '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"web3_clientVersion","params": [],"id":1}'


and we get the following output: 

Reverse proxy success!


Excellent! Now, how do we incorporate the Infura endpoint to be a fallback? 

You’ll notice we left the Infura endpoint in our Caddyfile where it originally
stood and we asked our proxy to load balance using the first upstream (our
localhost), which was how we got that “Reverse proxy success!” message. 

Now that we confirmed that we set everything up correctly on our end, we’re
going to kill the localhost server, mimicking what would happen if your private
node went down. Once we do that, our requests should automatically start routing
to the Infura node and we should get something similar to the below output:

{"jsonrpc":"2.0","id":1,"result":"Geth/v1.10.8-omnibus-aef5bfb3/linux-amd64/go1.16.7"}* Closing connection 0


But wait! We don’t get that! Instead, we get an error message. 

This is because Caddy only allows us to use either two HTTP or two HTTPS
endpoints - in our case, localhost is HTTP and our Infura endpoint is HTTPS. 

Luckily, there is a tool we can use to make this work with localhost that will
create a TLS certificate and sign it with a CA trusted locally by your device
and browser. That tool is called mkcert [https://github.com/FiloSottile/mkcert],
and it’s incredibly easy to install by following these steps
[https://web.dev/how-to-use-local-https/]. 

Keep in mind if you’re doing this with your own private HTTPS node, you likely 
will not need this additional step. 

If you are following our tutorial step-by-step (using localhost), be sure to
follow all the steps, including updating your main.js file to the below to
include the HTTPS requirement and the options constant. 

const https = require('https');
const fs = require('fs')
const options = {
   key: fs.readFileSync('<PATH_TO_CERTIFICATE-KEY_FILE>.pem'),
   cert: fs.readFileSync('<PATH_TO_CERTIFICATE_FILE>.pem')
};

const hostname = '127.0.0.1';
const port = 9000;

const server = https.createServer(options, function(req, res) {
   res.statusCode = 200;
   res.setHeader('Content-Type', 'text/plain');
   setTimeout(() => {res.end('Reverse proxy success!\n');}, 1000)
});

server.listen(port, hostname, () => {
   console.log(`Server running at https://${hostname}:${port}/`);
});


When you run the mkcert localhost command from the tutorial, the certificate key
file and certificate file used in the code above will be created.

Now that we have our localhost running with HTTPS, we can continue! Since we are
running everything with HTTPS, we need to update our Caddyfile to reflect those
changes.

localhost:3000 

reverse_proxy https://localhost:9000 https://rinkeby.infura.io {
   header_up Host {/v3/66172ed429624788ac264604755ba42c}
}


Now that we have all our files in order, let’s make sure our Node.js server is
running and send that request again. 

curl http://localhost:3000/v3/<YOUR_PROJECT_ID> \
-X POST \
-H "Content-Type: application/json" \
-d '{"jsonrpc":"2.0","method":"web3_clientVersion","params": [],"id":1}'


What do we get?

Reverse proxy success!


Perfect! That’s exactly what we want to get, as we have asked our reverse proxy
to go to https://localhost:9000 first. 

Now, what happens if we kill the Node server and send our request again?
Remember last time we did this, we got an error message. This time we should be
getting the result from our Infura Rinkeby node:

{"jsonrpc":"2.0","id":1,"result":"Geth/v1.10.8-omnibus-aef5bfb3/linux-amd64/go1.16.7"}


Success! 

Our reverse proxy is, in essence, ignoring the localhost node, as it’s not
functioning, and is defaulting to the Infura Rinkeby node! 

Super easy, right? Now you know how to use Infura as a backup node to keep your
services up and running smoothly!

Where can I learn more about reverse proxies?
Take a look at our client story from MakerDAO
[https://infura.io/customers/maker]. They currently use Infura for a multitude
of reasons, including using us as a backup node solution to ensure all
developers can use the MakerDAO toolkit! 

Another great example is the Polygon PoS network
[https://docs.infura.io/infura/networks/polygon-pos]. We initially began working
with Polygon to share some traffic load for their network, allowing users to
access the Polygon networks via Infura endpoints and effectively ensuring their
network remains fast and functional, regardless of traffic spikes they may see.
We have since increased our partnership so we are now handling 100% of their
network traffic. 

Check out this blog post
[https://consensys.net/blog/developers/how-to-save-time-on-devops-and-scale-with-infura-lessons-from-leading-ethereum-dapps/] 
highlighting multiple companies across all verticals using a hybrid
infrastructure model of their own nodes plus Infura. Get some ideas on how we
can help you accomplish your needs, from verifying transactions to providing
backup database services! 

If you would like to run an Infura node in addition to your own, sign up
[https://infura.io/register] for a free trial today.

How to Run Your Own Node AND an Infura Node

When enterprise developers build dapps on Ethereum, they often have to consider
the entire tech stack and development process. The list of considerations range
from application features such as Web2 interfaces to deployment, which is
usually on a permissioned network hosted by a preferred cloud provider. Since
most full-stack software engineers build off of SDKs and API calls, it’s
important to establish the value of the application with consideration of the
deployment network.


Get the best of both Web2 and Web3 worlds
Many enterprise blockchain business cases build on the principles of traditional
Web2 development. Web2 focuses on operating with a fluid user experience with
attention to detail on scalable and responsive code on multiple devices. A
valuable decentralized application (dapp) in Web3 redesigns the economics and
industry roles while building on complementary existing systems -- instead of
fully replacing those systems with analogous Web3 features. 

Say you would like to reinvent a syndicated loans issuance platform such as
IPREO. This effort would require significant IT resources to spin up a minimum
viable product from the ground up if you’re recreating features like tranche
issuance calculations or calendar date exceptions. Instead, consider a path to
lesser resistance: blockchain modules that connect these digital assets to new
liquidity networks. The functionality is a re-issuance of an existing financial
instrument to ABC network with a listing on XYZ automatic market maker rather
than the full end-to-end dashboard.

To connect to pockets of liquidity, an enterprise developer must deploy with the
same smart contract language that is compatible with the Ethereum Virtual
Machine (EVM) and look to bridge the assets to networks with the desired
investor and issuer markets.

Why build on public Ethereum?
Until now, publishing enterprise dapps on Ethereum requires significant system
integration, executive buy-in and high set-up costs. Recently, we have seen more
public blockchains working with enterprises to cover non-functional technical
needs in order to meet minimum requirements of security audits and performance.
However, the relatively tribal nature of the blockchain developer subculture
means that mainstream enterprises are still conservative when it comes to
building on Ethereum.

If you are an enterprise developer, consider the following advantages of
building on public Ethereum vs. permissioned networks:

1. Faster setup and lower total cost of ownership

2. Immutability and longevity of the data stored with thousands of independent
nodes

3. Composability and low barrier of entry to decentralized finance (DeFi)



1. Faster set-up and lower total cost of ownership
This is a standard private blockchain journey for a consortium:

After you develop your dapp, a lot of time is focused on node deployment
adhering to enterprise software standards. On the business side, you are also
trying to build a consortium to agree on the benefits and adoption before the
tech is tested. 

The consortium model usually chooses a separate tech vendor that does not have
single ownership from one consortium member to prevent conflicts of interest.
The tech vendor determining deployment and long-term support likely runs the
Ethereum nodes on behalf of participants. This will get the product to market
faster and focus on the business benefits. 

The last step involves time and licenses for adding more nodes and mutualizing
infrastructure costs across participants. Compared with private networks that
remove tokens from their operation, public networks require ownership of native
tokens to fund transactions. This gas cost pays for the infrastructure -- third
parties running full nodes and running operations for mining/validating. In my
time building enterprise projects, we have never seen this happen.

The public journey is much more straightforward. After you develop your dapp,
the deployment is a choice between public networks with updated configurations
on your Truffle setup. The added complexity is the gas costs for funding and
running your transactions on this network. 

To simplify connectivity to EVM-compatible networks, you can use Infura’s 
Ethereum API [https://infura.io/product/ethereum] to connect your app instantly
with a single line of code. Simplify your transaction management with Infura
Transactions (ITX)
[/why-you-should-use-infura-transactions-instead-of-building-your-own-in-house-relayer/] 
using prepaid accounts without holding ETH on your balance sheets. ITX is a
transaction relayer that manages your transactions to prevent dropped or stuck
transactions.

You will also likely want to work with a team such as Diligence that can audit
your contracts and monitor them when they’re live.

Public Ethereum has an overall lower total cost of ownership when you compare
the operational cost of running a system on mainnet rather than focusing on the
ownership and maintenance of the network itself. 

A consortium may have more control in the private chain and face less security
and treasury reviews at first. However, your infrastructure overhead and
negotiations on consortium network matters tend to outweigh the convenience and
added features of connecting to mainnet.

2. Immutability and Longevity
The Ethereum mainnet is secured by the interaction of thousands of independent
nodes run by individuals and miners throughout the world. Private chains
typically have a small number of nodes controlled by one or a few organizations.
Those nodes can be tightly controlled, but only a few need to be compromised in
order to rewrite the chain or commit fraudulent transactions.

At ConsenSys, we’ve recommended public networks to enterprise developers for
their resilience of replicated data as you are able to recover more quickly with
a larger network of more than 15,000 independent nodes. The more peers you have,
the easier it is to find a seed and fully recover your recorded transactions. In
consensus decisions, the more blockchain validators there are to verify
transactions, the more difficult it is to coordinate a majority decision that
may lead to an attack. 

In a permissioned network, the security is governed by the node with the least
security. Your network is only as secure as the weakest link. Any added nodes to
the network may also increase the surface area of attack. Most institutions will
recommend a base software security test in order to join as a full node owner.
The node owner will have to pass standard penetration testing to prevent any
hacking on the node in case it is a bad actor to the entire network.

3. Composability and Low Barrier to Entry on DeFi

The Ethereum network powers a vibrant ecosystem of third party applications and
technology including DeFi and NFTs. A highly composable and interoperable system
allows you to connect to DeFi to build financial products that enable and
combine multiple apps to match specific user needs. The Ethereum mainnet offers
enterprise developers the ability to gain access to market liquidity and provide
innovative ways for users to participate in the exchange, trading or growth of
that liquidity. 

When we say composable, it’s much more than just an open banking API. It’s a set
of open source live protocol contracts that can be called and extended. We’ve
seen pure forks of open source code like with Uniswap to get sushiswap. The
market has seen countless copies of DeFi models such as Compound and Aave, and
it doesn’t look like things are slowing down anytime soon. 

There’s more and more real value happening in DeFi leading us to believe that
cryptocurrencies are not a fad. It is here to stay.

Watch Clemens’ presentation “Pitching Public Ethereum to Enterprises”
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EgbzVFfdZyg] at EdCon 2021.

Interested in building on Ethereum? Contact us [https://infura.io/contact]to get
support on starting your enterprise project.

3 things enterprise developers should consider when deploying on Ethereum

Are you excited by blockchain but don’t have a great deal of experience coding?
It can be easy to fall down a rabbit hole of technical tutorials that make
assumptions regarding your initial development knowledge. A particularly
important topic to grasp is basic security within your code. 

As you begin to build out your very own dApp, you will have to include
information such as an Infura API key, along with a mnemonic. 

If you are new to coding, this is the equivalent of giving a stranger your
social security number and keys to your home. Once this information is public,
there is no definitive way to ensure it hasn’t been captured by a person or web
crawler, which could result in malicious behavior. 

So, how can we address this? 

Thankfully, we can use dotenv along with git to protect our sensitive
information within our project when / if we push to github.

Dotenv is a zero-dependency module that loads environment variables from a .env
file into process.env, storing configuration in the environment separate from
the code. It is often a convention for environment variables to be stored in a
.env file or other mechanisms based on the server you are using. 

Note: This article will focus on building out a project using Truffle
[https://www.trufflesuite.com/] and Infura.

In our project, we will need to run the following command:

npm i dotenv

Once the process in our terminal has been completed, we will want to make sure
we have the dependency successfully installed. Head over to your package.json
file and check to ensure that dotenv has been added under dependencies.

Next, at the root of our project, let’s create a .env file: 

Here is where you will add all of the sensitive information that should not be
shared. 

We will make sure we can access our .env information in our truffle.config file.
At the top of the truffle.config file, add the following: 

require("dotenv").config

This will tell your project to load anything that is in the .env into an
environment variable, granting you access to it. 

Now, instead of having to put our Infura api key or mnemonic in an exposed file,
we can import that information from our .env file. 

When it comes to gaining access to our project key we are going to use, sign up
to Infura [https://infura.io/register] and create a project. In your dashboard,
you should see something similar to this: 

The following code is an example between the usage of .env and exposed
information within truffle.config: 

const HDWalletProvider = require('@truffle/hdwallet-provider');
const infuraURL = 'https://rinkeby.infura.io/v3/<project id here>'
const mnemonic = "Your mnemonic here"

rinkeby: {
provider: () => new HDWalletProvider (mnemonic, infuraURL),
network_id: 4,
gas: 5500000,
confirmations: 2,
timeoutBlocks: 200,
skipDryRun: true
},

Imagine if you pushed this up to github. Anyone would have the ability to open
your truffle.config file could take advantage of your exposed mnemonic and
project id from Infura. 

Let’s take a look at that same code and implement better security practices. 

Notice how we are calling upon the information without having to directly add to
our file.

One important detail, as of now even with an .env file: if you push this project
to github, it will show the .env file, which would defeat the purpose! 

Take a look for yourself.

This is where .gitignore comes into play. We will need to create a .gitignore
file, so we can push this project up to github.

Without getting into git, a quick summary could be git is version control
software that keeps track of all of your files and the versions of them. What
.gitignore does is it tells git not to keep track of this file along with
everything it contains. 

If you want to dive deeper into git along with other foundational material, have
a look at our Basic Training
[https://courses.consensys.net/courses/bootcamp-basic-training], a free course
that helps ensure you have the fundamental tools when developing. 

At our root (similar to the level our .env file lives), we will create a
.gitignore. Inside of that file, we will add .env along with any other files you
would rather not be pushed to github. 

We can now push our project up to github and notice that our .env file is no
longer exposed. Our sensitive information is now much more secure. 

If you are experimenting with this, make sure you add your .env file to your
.gitignore before pushing. 

If you are running into issues, remember gitignore ignores only untracked files.
If your files were committed in the past, they are now tracked by git. To ignore
them, you first need to delete said files, git rm them, commit and then ignore.

Otherwise, you can delete the .env file and run 

Git rm .env --cached

Here
[https://docs.github.com/en/github/authenticating-to-github/keeping-your-account-and-data-secure/removing-sensitive-data-from-a-repository] 
is a helpful link discussing the removal of sensitive data from a repo if it was
previously committed and discusses how to clean the git history. Savvy attackers
don't just look at the most recent repository info, they'll look at the history
of it as well.

Note: If you come across it in documentation, a question you might have is
“What is env. example”

An env. example file, on the contrary to this tutorial, is actually included in
the repository, it is used as an example file for you to know what KEY=VALUE
pairs you need for your project. Most often, it is used to copy the .env file
and then change the values. 

Example of execution: 
Enter to the project root directory using your terminal.

Check if .env the file exists or not.

If the file does not exist then create a file named .env.

Now execute the command

cp .env.local .env.

So the .env.sample file has all the ENV declarations defined but without their
values. It helps other developers establish/set up the project without having to
reverse-engineer the codebase.

So after git clone, you usually execute the command `cp .env.sample .env` and
fill in the values with the Infura credentials as we saw in the example above. 

Note: When you create a new repo using github, if you scroll down you should see
the option to include a .gitignore file so you don’t have to create one yourself
in the future. 

Hopefully, you found this article on basic security practices helpful as you
begin to develop your very own projects. Feel free to join our Discord
[https://discord.gg/ADWNDYVb8b] if you want to continue the conversation, share
projects, ideas, and join the community!

Start here with a free Infura account > [https://infura.io/register]

How to Use .env to Enhance Basic Security Within Your DApp

Optimistic Ethereum is a rollup scaling solution that allows users to submit
transactions on the Ethereum network and get them executed faster for a much
lower gas cost. From the perspectives of users and developers, this is a
"parallel universe" called Layer 2, or L2, where users typically have the same
addresses as they do on the Ethereum blockchain (also called Layer 1 or L1).
There are gateways that allow messages and assets to be transferred between the
universes.

The Optimism network API largely uses the same JSON-RPC specification as
Ethereum and Infura supports all the necessary API methods for building a fully
functional application on the Optimistic Ethereum network.

Why are transactions cheaper on Optimism?
On L1 Ethereum, thousands of nodes run your transaction to verify that the
proposed block that includes it is valid. This process is expensive and has to
be paid for. Unlike on L1 Ethereum, Optimistic roll ups provide faster and
cheaper transactions because it allows users to perform most of their tasks
off-chain in a "layer 2" protocol. On Optimistic Ethereum, the smart contract
has only two tasks: deposits/withdrawals and verifying proofs of transactions on
chain. This makes the process more efficient and a lot cheaper.

Why is this safe?
The great thing about decentralization is you can trust that transactions are
executed correctly because there are thousands of computers executing them.
Honest miners would reject such a transaction. With rollups, you don't have that
level of redundancy.

The answer, in the case of optimistic rollups, is incentives. Every node in the
network has to put up a stake before it can propose a new block with the
execution results of a transaction. Every other node can check up on those
results, and if it thinks they are incorrect, dispute them. The dispute is
resolved on L1, so it is as trustworthy as anything else in Ethereum. Whichever
node lies, either proposer or disputer, loses its stake and most of it goes to
the other node involved.

Of course, the whole point is to avoid running transactions in L1. This system
achieves that by making it pointless to cheat. Any proposer who attempts to
cheat is going to be caught by the other nodes, lose its stake, and not get the
invalid transaction result accepted as valid. A disputer can force a single
transaction to go into L1 arbitration as a denial of service attack, but the
stake is high enough that it wouldn't be worth doing.

How does Infura work with Optimism?
Infura exposes endpoints for Optimistic Ethereum (the production network) and
Optimistic Kovan (the test network). You use them the same way you use any other
network, by selecting them from the menu and using the specified endpoint.

There are a few small differences between building on Layer 1 Ethereum and
Optimism:

1. You must use the JSON-RPC API as we do not support Websockets yet.
2. Search filters are not yet supported

How to Get Started on Optimism...


The main difference between Optimism and regular L1 Ethereum (other than the
cost) is the access point URL. 

| Network          | RPC URL |

… If you are using the Truffle development environment
Infura users can add the free Truffle Optimism add-on directly on their Infura
dashboard. The Truffle Optimism box also contains the configuration definitions
[https://trufflesuite.com/boxes/optimism] required to use Infura. Currently, you
will need to manually add the gas costs of transactions when you use Truffle to
run deployments or tests on Optimistic Kovan or the main Optimistic Ethereum
network.

… If you are using Hardhat
To use Optimistic Ethereum or Kovan, edit hardhat.config.js's 
modules.export.networks
[https://github.com/ethereum-optimism/optimism-tutorial/pull/60/files] to add
these definitions:

> "optimistic-kovan": {
url: 'https://optimism-kovan.infura.io/v3/<Infura Project ID>',
accounts: { mnemonic: <your account mnemonic goes here> },
gasPrice: 15000000,
ovm: true // This sets the network as using the ovm and ensure
// contract will be compiled against that.
},
"optimistic-ethereum": {
url: 'https://optimism-mainnet.infura.io/v3/<Infura Project ID>',
accounts: { mnemonic: <your account mnemonic goes here> },
gasPrice: 15000000,
ovm: true // This sets the network as using the ovm and ensure
// contract will be compiled against that.
}


Then you simply run:

> npx hardhat --network optimistic-<kovan or ethereum> <command>

… If you are using Remix
When you use the Remix Optimism plugin
[https://remix-optimism-compiler-plugin.readthedocs.io/en/latest?xgtab&] to
develop for Optimism, network connections are created through the wallet. If you
use MetaMask, you can select the network Custom RPC and fill in the details:

What is Optimistic Ethereum?

Ethereum developers today benefit from the ubiquity and uniformity of the 
Ethereum JSON-RPC API [https://eth.wiki/json-rpc/API] and the flexibility it
provides by letting them swap Ethereum client implementations without breaking
code. At Infura we see this API interoperability as a valuable public good. To
support Ethereum 2.0 client teams working towards compatibility with the 
Ethereum 2.0 API specification [https://ethereum.github.io/eth2.0-APIs/], Infura
is pleased to be open-sourcing an Apache 2.0-licensed tool for testing client
API conformance: eth2-comply [https://github.com/INFURA/eth2-comply]. Client
teams can integrate it into their CI pipelines starting today.

eth2-comply is a simple CLI tool which can run against any HTTP appliance: 

eth2-comply --target http://localhost:5051

eth2-comply requires only that its target implements the /v1/node/health
[https://ethereum.github.io/eth2.0-APIs/#/Node/getHealth] and /v1/node/syncing
[https://ethereum.github.io/eth2.0-APIs/#/Node/getSyncingStatus] endpoints from
the Ethereum 2.0 API spec. With those endpoints available, developers may
integrate eth2-comply into their CI pipelines while continuing to achieve API
conformance incrementally using the subset and failSilent flags. subset enables
specifying subsets of the full test suite to run; for example, only the tests
for routes you have implemented. failSilent configures eth2-comply to return a 0
code even if tests are failing.

An important goal in developing eth2-comply was to make it as easy as possible
for anybody to contribute test cases to eth2-comply's standard test suite. Test
cases are specified in JSON, using a simple syntax. Here is an example of a
minimal test
[https://github.com/INFURA/eth2-comply/blob/main/tests/get/v1/beacon/genesis/200_0.json]
, which will pass for any response that satisfies the Ethereum 2.0 API
specification for the /v1/beacon/genesis operation. Here is a more complex test
case
[https://github.com/INFURA/eth2-comply/blob/main/tests/post/v1/beacon/pool/voluntary_exits/200_0.json]
, with a request body and an expected response status code; responses for this
test must satisfy both the API spec, and the test's explicit response
expectations. Expected response bodies may be specified as well.

We are eager to implement features that make it easier to integrate eth2-comply
into your development workflow or CI pipeline, and which help test contributors
to write more expressive scenarios. Please do not hesitate to open issues
communicating the features you need, the bugs you discover, and the questions
you have.

In the meantime, our Eth2 API is live and ready for testing! If you want the
chance to help shape our Eth2 testnet API, apply now and register your interest
[https://infura.io/contact?&utm_source=infurablog&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=announcement&utm_content=eth2_comply]
.
[https://infura.io/contact?utm_source=email&utm_medium=newsletter&utm_campaign=juneupdate] 
Documentation will be sent out directly to users who are accepted into the beta.

Engineering

New Open-Source Tool for Testing Client API Conformance: eth2-comply

Deciding whether to run your own Ethereum node (or nodes), outsource your
infrastructure to a Web3 provider like Infura
[https://infura.io/?&utm_source=infurablog&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=tutorials&utm_content=versus]
, or deploy a hybrid node solution really depends on your API workload. To help
developers evaluate their options, we’ve built Versus:
[https://github.com/INFURA/versus] an open source API benchmarking tool. Versus
compares your API workload across different node implementations and Web3
providers so you can make data-based decisions. 

Tests run using the Versus tool are 99% reproducible. In this post we step
through a sample test to demonstrate how the tool works, and share the test
parameters and results so others can follow the same method and reproduce them.

Getting Started
This project lives here [https://github.com/INFURA/versus]. Simply grab the 
latest release binary [https://github.com/INFURA/versus/releases] for your
platform, extract it, put it in your $PATH and you’re ready to roll.

How it Works
Versus is a command-line tool that reads lines of JSON-RPC requests from STDIN
and concurrently sends them to multiple endpoints. It validates that the same
results are returned, and compares the time to retrieve them, across each
endpoint.

For example: let’s say we have a file queries.json with lines of the types of
queries that our application performs:

$ cat queries.json

{"jsonrpc":"2.0","id":1,"method":"eth_blockNumber"}

{"jsonrpc":"2.0","id":1,"method":"eth_getBalance","params" ["0x49318b3970C8a82275B440900bE45f27bf682108","latest"]}

{"jsonrpc":"2.0","id":1,"method":"eth_getCode","params":["0x2a0c0dbecc7e4d658f48e01e3fa353f44050c208","latest"]}



We can send those queries to our local node: `cat queries.json | versus "
http://127.0.0.1:8545"


The results would be returned super fast. That's because these are fairly simple
queries – and there are only three of them. If we want to run a few thousand
queries, it’s going to take a bit more time. We can bump up the concurrency of
versus with the --concurrency=20 flag. Add --verbose once or twice to get more
output as the process is going.

We can also run the same queries against multiple endpoints at the same time:

$ export INFURA_API_KEY=”... grab this from your https://infura.io/dashboard”
$ cat many-queries.json | versus -vv --concurrency=50 \
"http://geth-node:8545" \
	"http://parity-node:8545" \
	"https://mainnet.infura.io/v3/${INFURA_API_KEY}"


Some responses may be mismatched, but that’s to be expected. Geth and Parity
don’t always agree on the exact output that certain types of queries should
generate. Note that Websocket support is not implemented yet
[https://github.com/INFURA/versus/issues/11] - pull requests are welcome!

Generating Realistic Queries
Not many of us have a juicy many-queries.json sitting around on our hard drive -
and even if we do, these queries get stale really fast. The performance of a
node on queries that touch recently-mutated state will vary from state that is
super old.

To generate realistic queries, we can use Ethspam
[https://github.com/shazow/ethspam] - another handy open source tool. Ethspam
generates an infinite stream of realistic queries, based on the typical pattern
of RPC methods that Infura receives. It’s not perfect, but it’s very useful in
combination with Versus. After grabbing a binary release, we can pipe it
directly:

$ ethspam | versus -vv --concurrency=50 --stop-after=10000 \
"http://geth-node:8545" \
	"http://parity-node:8545" \
	"https://mainnet.infura.io/v3/${INFURA_API_KEY}"


Output
Below is an example of the output you can expect, once you’ve piped your query
into Versus:

In this example, we’ve used Infura
[https://infura.io/?&utm_source=infurablog&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=tutorials&utm_content=versus]
(Core Tier) as the Web3 provider, and a local “anonymous” node on an i3.xlarge
EC2 instance, and ran a test to compare the two.

Results
In this test, the local node was quite limited. Despite many optimizations
(high-IO storage, high memory with increased cache size, etc), requests were
bottlenecked. By comparison, Infura’s concurrency proved to be unbounded (i.e.,
there was no limit to how many requests Infura could respond to, per second). 
Some requests were very fast to serve from the local node, which resulted in a
lower minimum latency time -- however, the average and maximum latency was
significantly and consistently lower for requests through Infura (0.1291s
standard deviation for Infura vs 3.2035s for the local node).

Key Learnings
 1. The mismatched responses presented above were predominantly due to the local
    node disagreeing with Infura about what the latest block number was. If
    Versus is run with the --verbose flag, it will print mismatched results.
    Ethspam included some queries that required an archival node to retrieve.
    Neither the local node nor the Infura Core plan had access to archive-tier
    data, so these particular results matched up;
 2. Ethspam input is random, which means that if you’re using Versus to compare
    separate runs, your results won’t be consistent. When comparing nodes, make
    a single Versus run against multiple endpoints. A single run will confirm
    that the results match. Only make multiple Versus runs against each single
    endpoint if you’re using the exact same input;
 3. When running Versus against a single node, make sure that node is fully
    synced and functional. Nodes like geth will happily respond with an empty
    non-error response, even when it’s not synchronized, without doing any
    actual work. Running simultaneously against a known functioning node helps
    ensure that results are not mismatched.
 4. When running with high concurrency, make sure there are enough samples to
    reach consistent performance. At minimum, we suggest at least x100 requests
    per unit of concurrency. Higher is better!

Get Testing!
Though Versus was built by Infura, it’s intended to be an impartial and open
source project. We encourage ideas and pull requests from the Ethereum community
that seek to make Versus a better, more objective tool that anyone can run.

You can start playing around with Versus [https://github.com/INFURA/versus] now
to compare different node implementations and Web3 providers. Compare a light
node to a full node, compare different kinds of nodes against each other, or
compare Infura against other Web3 providers in high load/concurrency situations. 

Our hope is that developers will find Versus a useful tool to help them evaluate
what’s out there and ultimately find the best solution to power their DApp.


--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Want more Web3 tools? Check out this post
[/new-tools-for-running-ipfs-nodes-196de636f079/?&utm_source=infurablog&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=tutorials&utm_content=versus] 
for open source tools that help you interact more seamlessly with IPFS. Ready to
test out Infura? Sign up
[https://infura.io/register?&utm_source=infurablog&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=tutorials&utm_content=versus] 
to start building for free!

Compare Ethereum API Performance with Versus

At Infura
[https://infura.io/?&utm_source=infurablog&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=tutorials&utm_content=vipnode]
, we use Vipnode to control the peers of groups of nodes, where each group has a
different role. We’ll explore several recent additions to Vipnode that make this
possible. First, a little background about what Vipnode is and how it works.

Vipnode is an open source project [https://github.com/vipnode/vipnode] designed
for matchmaking Ethereum nodes with relevant peers. For example, if we have a
geth light client, we can use a vipnode pool to find available geth full nodes
who will serve our light client.

Pools and Agents
Vipnode can run in two modes: As a pool, or as an agent. The pool acts as a
coordinator server that match-makes connected agents. The agent takes control of
a local Ethereum node and connects to a pool to get further instructions about
which peers the Ethereum node should connect with.

If we’re simply looking to peer our node with other nodes on the official demo
vipnode pool, we can run:

vipnode agent wss://pool.vipnode.org/

The agent will connect to the demo pool at pool.vipnode.org, request compatible
peers to AllowList the Ethereum node’s NodeID, then connect to the AllowListed
peers. This works even if the peers’ normal limits are reached, because
AllowListing bypasses the node’s limits.

At Infura, we take the same idea, but implement it a little differently.

Managing Infrastructure
By running our own private Vipnode pool, we can ensure that our Ethereum nodes
are all peered with each other. By running a separate pool for different kinds
of nodes, we can carefully control our internal network topology of our Ethereum
nodes.

Some recent features we added to Vipnode to make this use case more powerful:

vipnode agent --min-peers=3
Control the number of pool-aware peers the Ethereum node maintains. If the
number of node peers that are members of the pool drops below this number, the
agent will request more AllowListed peers from the pool. We can use a high
number here to always request more peers to make sure all of our nodes are
cross-connected with each other.

vipnode agent --strict-peers
When we run an Ethereum node by default, it’s going to find other random peers
to connect with. Strict peers is useful when we want to disable discovery and
keep the peer set to be exactly what the pool tells our node to use.
Additionally, if a node’s advertised routing information changes (such as the IP
address or port), strict peers will force the Ethereum node to reconnect to it
with the latest address.

vipnode agent --enode.host=”10.1.2.3"
A fresh Ethereum node will use the built-in peer discovery mechanism by default.
In that process, the node will find its’ own public IP address and use that to
advertise connections to peers.

That’s great for normal nodes, but if we’re running many nodes within a single
network cluster then we may want them to peer with each other over our internal
network. There are many benefits: Better security isolation, lower latency, no
bandwidth costs.

We can use the --enode= flag to override the entire advertised enode:// 
connection string, or just override the host component with --enode.host= with
our internally-routed IP address.

Network Topologies
With these three new features, we can create complex arrangements of peer
networks. We could have a set of nodes that are fully connected with each other.
We could make a set of nodes that is fully isolated in a private network. We can
reduce our bandwidth usage by making sure our nodes are connected to each other
using the private network routing.

At its core, Vipnode is a tool for controlling which peers we connect with.
Originally this power was used to integrate with a public paywall mechanic, but
now it’s also useful for managing clusters of nodes. Keep an eye out for more
interesting use cases!

Follow the project on Github. [https://github.com/vipnode/vipnode]

Subscribe to the Vipnode newsletter [https://tinyletter.com/vipnode/] for
release updates.

How Infura Uses Vipnode to Manage Ethereum Nodes

ICYMI, last week 1200 developers came together in San Francisco for the 2019
GraphQL summit: a global event dedicated to innovations in GraphQL
[https://graphql.org/] and best in-class implementations. Among Web2 giants like
Microsoft, AirBnB, Paypal and globally recognized media brands like the New York
Times, one voice represented Web3: Infura
[https://infura.io/?&utm_source=infurablog&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=tutorials&utm_content=ethql] 
Developer Tools Architect, Kris Shinn.

Shinn delivered an insightful talk on how Infura is trying to transform the way
it interacts with Ethereum [https://ethereum.org/] data through its contribution
to EthQL [https://github.com/ConsenSys/ethql]. Shorthand for “Ethereum plus
GraphQL,” EthQL is a collaborative project that aims to advance a GraphQL schema
and standardize it for the Ethereum blockchain.

This post recaps Shinn’s talk. It establishes the data problem posed by Web3 and
Ethereum, proposes how GraphQL can solve these problems and demonstrates ways to
experiment with EthQL now to start pulling more meaningful data off the
blockchain.

First, let’s establish some context to set up the problem. What is ‘Web3’? And
What is ‘Ethereum’?
If you’re reading this post, you’re probably familiar with traditional web
architecture. A server sends a data request on behalf of clients and then
disseminates that data to the clients as they need it. That way the server can
have protected credentials for premium APIs and you have a single source of
requests to your external APIs.

But this architecture is aging. Modern applications and billion dollar
industries are built on architecture that is nearly 30 years old. We’ve
progressively integrated more services through APIs, trusting our data to a
shrinking number of tech giants who have now become responsible for protecting
and respecting the world’s data.

For better or worse, traditional web architecture is a system built on trust;
trust that our apps are talking to the right authorities, that the data is
secure, that the data is correct and has not been altered.

Enter ‘Web3’: a truly decentralized web built with security at the center. In
Web3 architecture, applications are networked peer-to-peer rather than connected
to a single centralized server. As a result, clients each make individual
requests to external APIs containing data needed by the client. This network is
built around ‘verification’, rather than ‘trust’ and because it does not possess
a single centralized infrastructure, it’s more robust. It’s difficult to hack
and less vulnerable to DOS. That means an increased resistance to network
downtime, fraud and third party interference.

Web3 is a new decentralized web made for the next generation of networked
applications. Any blockchain-based application is built on a Web3 platform.
While the tech is still emergent, many industries have spent the last few years
prototyping blockchain-based applications. Decentralized finance (DeFi) is the
most popular current use case, but every sub vertical — from enterprise
efficiency to real estate — has at least one prototyped blockchain application.

Ethereum: a Web3 Platform with Programmable Tokens
When you think of ‘Ethereum,’ you probably think about cryptocurrency. The most
famous implementations of early blockchain technology were the creation of
cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, Ethereum and Litecoin. But Ethereum is more than
a cryptocurrency. It’s an open peer-to-peer platform that allows developers to
build decentralized applications. Enabling those applications to issue
programmable tokens is simply a feature of the platform.

The platform is connected to a global network of thousands of nodes. Programs
written to execute on Ethereum are called Smart Contracts and they allow you to
transfer value, save data or execute bits of logic that interact with the
blockchain.

Infura’s Place in the Ethereum Ecosystem
Infura
[https://infura.io?&utm_source=infurablog&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=tutorials&utm_content=ethql] 
is a Web3 infrastructure company with a mission to provide developers with the
best tools and infrastructure to build and run applications on the decentralized
web. Founded in 2016, we were one of the earliest entrants into Web3. As
Ethereum already had a strong reputation and a thriving community, we decided to
start there. Today, providing fast on ramps to the Ethereum and Interplanetary
File System (IPFS) networks through easy-to-use APIs is our core business. Our
products allow developers to interact with the Ethereum blockchain without
having to spin-up and maintain their own infrastructure. By using Infura,
developers save time, money and resources. They can connect instantly to Web3
and focus on building killer software on top of it.

To optimize their applications, developers need to be able to read Ethereum
data. This is currently made possible primarily by using a lightweight open
source protocol called JSON RPC 2.0.

The Problem With JSON RPC
There are two layers of network protocol needed to make all of this work: the
underlying peer-to-peer layer and the external operational layer.

The peer-to-peer layer (P2P) is focussed on keeping data in sync and takes care
of the consensus mechanisms. The “operational” layer is designed for
applications to interact with the node: send transactions, query data, and
interface with administrative functions. JSON-RPC 2.0 is the protocol used in
that operational layer. It’s built to scale over a number of transports (HTTP,
Websockets, and IPC) and provides a simple interface for interacting with a
network node. As this protocol was never built specifically to query a node,
using it to send data requests produces a number of problems:

 1. There’s no native typing. Implementing return data in JSON could be
    different per implementation;
 2. There are defined calls and data returns, but there is nothing that natively
    indicates the relationship between the data;
 3. Data selection is not supported;
 4. It routinely over-fetches and under-fetches data. Over-fetching means that
    an API call returns data that the application is not interested in and this
    can impact how efficiently the client puts together the response.
    Under-fetching means that an application may need to make multiple or
    dependent calls in order to fetch the data it needs. Both cases can result
    in returning way more data than is useful or necessary for each query,
    creating a big efficiency problem.
 5. Raw output is returned to the user in a serialized encoding that was
    designed for efficient storage and transport. Developers need to encode data
    before querying and then decode the response to get useful data out.

In a world where we are trying to optimize for mobile and reduce the amount of
network congestion to produce snappy and efficient apps, the difficulty in
getting data off the blockchain efficiently makes writing efficient Web3 apps
complex. In the absence of a proper query layer, JSON-RPC continues to be the
most widely adopted API in Ethereum today. Developers compensate for the lack of
standards with client libraries that abstract away all of the different variants
of implementation.

GraphQL: A Better Way to Query the Blockchain
To improve and simplify the user experience for developers, we need a strongly
typed, standardized way to both interact with and query data from the
blockchain. Using GraphQL as an alternative interface to JSON RPC can solve a
number of key problems:

 1. Standardize the return type by providing a strongly typed schema that could
    have standard implementations;
 2. Offer an explicit and consistent way to model the data on the blockchain;
 3. Increase efficiency by eliminating over-fetching and under-fetching;
 4. Easily extend and layer on additional functionality, while retaining the
    core API.

Specific, Accurate and Efficient
Ethereum data is comprised of five key components. Below, we outline the
definition of three such components and compare the return from JSON RPC and
GraphQL for the related request.

Blocks
Blocks are a top-level data structure. All data is organized into blocks and
provide a point-in-time reference for Logs and Transactions.

 * Query: “Get the latest block”
 * Return:

Transactions
The “action” for blockchain. Transactions create Logs (or Events), transfer
value between accounts (even 0 value) and is the primary Calls method on
Contracts (accounts).

 * Query: “Get the latest block with transactions”
 * Return:

Logs (or Events)
A log is simply an event that occurs. They’re used for record keeping on the
network and return values for the UI.

 * Query: “Get logs from a transaction”
 * Return:

Each example demonstrates how much more specific and efficient the return is
when using GraphQL is used to request data. More importantly…

…the data is decoded!


--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Want fast access to the Ethereum and IPFS networks? Head to Infura.io and sign
up to our Core service
[https://infura.io/pricing?&utm_source=infurablog&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=tutorials&utm_content=ethql] 
to start playing around for free.
Need more request volume and direct support? Check out Infura+
[https://infura.io/pricing?&utm_source=infurablog&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=tutorials&utm_content=ethql] 
to pick the right plan for your project.

EthQL: Transform How You Interact with the Ethereum Blockchain

Senior Systems Engineer Jee Choi demonstrating how Infura handles data requests
at Devcon VIt’s been four weeks since three thousand builders and creators
converged in Osaka to attend Devcon V [https://devcon.org/]: the annual
conference for Ethereum [https://ethereum.org/] developers. Across three days
the Ethereum community came together to exchange ideas, attend workshops and be
inspired by a range of electric talks. On day two, Infura founder Eleazar Galano
and Senior Systems Engineer Jee Choi delivered a talk on Infura’s Open
Architecture Initiative. The Initiative is an ongoing effort to consolidate the
knowledge and experience Infura has accumulated as Ethereum’s largest blockchain
infrastructure provider, and share it with the developer community.

Opening Up to Create a Stronger Ecosystem
Some of the problems we’ve worked through to bring reliability and scale to our
infrastructure are common to many Ethereum developers. Even basic node
deployments require additional tooling to maintain a minimum level of
reliability. The solutions we’ve implemented can also help others build better
architecture. Through the Open Architecture Initiative, we’re providing
visibility into Infura’s architecture. We encourage other organisations to do
the same and share what isn’t proprietary to increase collaboration, solve
problems faster and benefit the entire ecosystem.

This post steps through the evolution of Infura’s architecture to share how
we’ve scaled reliable access to the Ethereum network and gives readers a sneak
peek into what’s coming next.


--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Infura was launched three years ago, at Devcon II, with a mission: to make a
valuable contribution to the Ethereum ecosystem by removing the infrastructure
burden from developers, so they could focus on building great Web3 software.
Over the last three years our architecture has evolved to serve the growing
demands of our user base. Ethereum client software is engineered to be
accessible and ubiquitous. While at its core Infura has always been powered by
that same public client software, we have augmented and optimized our
architecture to fully take advantage of the resources available in a modern
cloud environment, to provide the most stable and scalable experience possible.

Single Node Architecture
Most developers start building on Web3 by spinning up a single node or ‘client’.
Whether they’re an engineer working for a large enterprise, a developer building
their own dapp or part of a development team looking to scale their project to
support more users, all developers use the same nodes.

A single node will connect an application to a peer-to-peer (P2P) network, but
it limits the extent to which that application can scale. Once they’ve surpassed
the scaling requirements of a single node, developers need to implement custom
solutions to unblock further growth. Unfortunately, that means that teams with
more resources have an advantage over single developers and end up creating
better sources of data for their apps. By sharing some of the design patterns
and tools we’ve implemented to build Infura, we hope to level the playing field
a bit more. for development teams.

Client Types
The most common Ethereum clients (‘nodes’) are Geth (go-ethereum)
[https://geth.ethereum.org/], Parity-Ethereum [https://www.parity.io/ethereum/] 
and Hyperledger Besu [https://www.hyperledger.org/projects/besu]. A standard
Ethereum client is monolithic. It is comprised of various subsystems which can
only be scaled to a certain degree:

Diagram i): Ethereum Client SubsystemsThis results in two key friction points
for developers:

 1. This monolithic architecture means that most people need to build custom
    software solutions around the client in order to enable a particular use
    case (rather than simply optimizing the client for that use case);
 2. A common way to run a resilient web service is via high-availability and
    redundancy patterns which means you can have separate failure domains for
    these subsystems and can optimize them independently. However, an Ethereum
    client is only as reliable as the server or hardware it is running on. If
    the client fails, all of its subsystems become inaccessible. An example of
    this is the local key-value data store or the RPC server:

Diagram ii): RPC ServerInfura’s Cloud Architecture Model
In 2016, Infura started running an Ethereum client on our cloud infrastructure.
This enabled us to provision a new virtual server, install the Ethereum client
software and sync the chain up to the most recent block data (also known as
‘node provisioning’). This method resulted in faster sync times between nodes (<
1 hour) and removed the need for additional tooling.

Founder Eleazar Galano talking through Infura’s Cloud Architecture Model at
Devcon VTo ensure we could maintain a shorter sync time, we moved to using
snapshots of EBS chain data. If sync time crossed a particular threshold, we
considered it too long and spun up a new node, quickly to keep our systems
operational. Snapshots enabled this process, ensuring no downtime for our
service. Bonus: periodic snapshots were also valuable for failure recovery.

Diagram iii): Node CreationOptimizations in Space and Time
This particular implementation of the client storage system resulted in major
performance improvements with the release of Geth v1.9.0. Sync time was reduced
by 6.4 hours and the amount of disk space needed to store the chain was also
optimized:

Table a): Comparing PerformanceIncreased Input/Output Operations Per Second
(IOPS)
As Table a) demonstrates, a substantial volume of data is written and read when
you’re running a node and syncing the chain (over 1 TiB). For a server, this is
typically measured in increased Input/Output Operations Per Second (IOPS).
Higher IOPS means that your node will not be bottlenecked by disk input/output
when syncing the chain. We chose Amazon EC2 (i3 instance class) as our server
for running nodes because of the direct access to high IOPS capable Solid-State
Drives (SSDs). This resulted in fast SSD direct syncing from object storage for
Archive and Full Sync nodes.

Traffic Patterns
We’ve classified Infura’s traffic into three categories: Near-Head (within a
couple of hundred blocks behind latest), Archive (need pruned data) and Full (do
not need pruned data):

Diagram iv): Traffic TypesThe majority of our traffic is Near-Head (consistently
more than 70%). Archive traffic is pretty fluid and frequently varies between
26. 4% and 1%. To service the high volume of Near-Head traffic, we started
caching the data (‘Near-Head Cache’) using a Content Delivery Network (CDN).
This worked well in the beginning, but we found it to be limited. Traffic
continued to grow, and we reached a point where the CDN constrained us. We then
switched to a Redis [https://redis.io/] database which allowed us to cache all 
our Near-Head data and enabled us to scale.

Specialized Microservices
Log Indexer
We use a variety of different, specialized indexers and caching methods to help
us handle frequently called requests. ‘Log Indexer’ is one of them. Infura
receives a ton of get_logs requests. Traditionally, an Ethereum client uses
bloom filters to retrieve getLog data. This works well in single user scenarios,
but if you’re handling a lot of requests, it can be really time consuming. Using
bloom filters for retrieval would have increased load time and slowed down
response times. We built Log Indexer to solve this problem. It indexes all log
data with incoming new blocks, allowing for faster retrieval and overall higher
quality of service for those types of requests.

What About Re-Orgs?
To detect re-orgs, we built a ‘Re-Org Tracker’: a microservice that detects
re-orgs with incoming block data:

Diagram v): Re-org TrackerThe tracker offloads rollback events associated with
re-org’d block and retrieves the correct canonical block data. It might look
like a simple system, but it can be used to index any data associated with
blocks.

Request Handling
This is a general overview of how Infura handles traffic:

Diagram vi): Request HandlingMost of our traffic is handled Near-Head caching.
We then have a set of specialized indexers and caches that handle more
frequently called requests and finally, full sync and archive nodes serve are
set up to serve a very small amount of infrequent requests.

Internal Tools
 * Key router / Consistent-Hashing: we open-sourced Infura’s keyrouter
   [https://github.com/INFURA/keyrouter] microservice, which uses
   consistent-hashing to map keys to a set of data sources (endpoints)
   consistently. This is really useful for routing specific kinds of traffic to
   particular data sources.
 * Peering Manager: a member of our team, Andrey Petrov, created a service
   called Vipnode [https://vipnode.org/] which connects nodes with desired
   peers, such as light-nodes to full nodes. Infura uses Vipnode to create
   separate internal node topologies grouped by various attributes. It helps
   control block propagation times and bandwidth utilization of nodes.
 * Node Monitor: to track the health of Infura’s nodes, we implemented a node
   monitoring service. It keeps track of critical stats — like block number or
   number of peers, for example — and restarts our nodes as required.

A Sneak Peak at What’s Coming Next
We continue to be dedicated to working closely with the Ethereum ecosystem and
sharing what we’ve learned to make base network access as easy as possible to
run and scale. In the meantime, we’ve roadmapped a ton of new projects and
features based on user feedback and some new tech! Here’s a quick preview of
what we’ll be rolling out:

 * Official support for trace methods;
 * Expanding support for gas interactions with some potentially exciting
   partnerships;
 * Full suite of transaction tools to help developers create stellar user
   experiences;
 * Enriching the Infura Dashboard to add some of our top requested features
   (more on this soon!);
 * Supporting more Web3 technologies! We’ve just wrapped up a project with the
   POA team supporting xDAI and Splunk to launch ButterCup Bucks at Splunk
   Conference 2019. This is just one of many collaborative Web3 projects
   currently in our backlog. We’re looking forward to adding value to more
   awesome projects across the Web3 sphere.

Want scalable infrastructure, expert support and project analytics all in one
place? Check out Infura+
[https://infura.io/pricing?utm_source=Medium&utm_medium=Blog&utm_campaign=OAI] 
to pick the right plan for your project.

Engineering

New Open-Source Tool for Testing Client API Conformance: eth2-comply

Compare Ethereum API Performance with Versus

How Infura Uses Vipnode to Manage Ethereum Nodes

EthQL: Transform How You Interact with the Ethereum Blockchain

Building Better Ethereum Infrastructure